The pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba infections: current status and future implications

Acanthamoeba are opportunistic protozoan parasites that can cause painful, visionthreatening keratitis. However the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Acanthamoeba keratitis remain incompletely understood. Most cases of Acanthamoeba keratitis develop as a result of poor hygiene in contact lens care but it is unclear how amoebae transmigrate from the environment into the cornea leading to inflammation, photophobia and blindness. Acanthamoeba keratitis has become increasingly important in the past few decades due to increasing populations of contact lens users. The mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba are highly complex, depending on the virulence properties of the parasite, host susceptibility and the environmental conditions. Complete understanding of Acanthamoeba pathogenesis and its associated risks factors should allow us to design strategies for disease prevention and for the rational development of therapeutic interventions against these devastating infections. Acanthamoeba keratitis has become a significant problem in recent years, especially in contact lens wearers exposed to contaminated water

Acanthamoeba and the blood-brain barrier: the breakthrough

Acanthamoeba granulomatous encephalitis is a rare disease that almost always proves fatal. Death occurs mainly due to neurological complications; however, the pathogenesis and pathophysiology associated with this disease remain incompletely understood. Haematogenous spread is a key step in the development of Acanthamoeba encephalitis, but it is not clear how circulating amoebae breakthrough the blood-brain barrier to gain entry into the central nervous system to produce the disease. This review of the literature describes the parasite factors and immune-mediated mechanisms involved in the blood-brain barrier dysfunction leading to neuropathogenesis

Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba

Acanthamoeba is a free-living protist pathogen, capable of causing a blinding keratitis and fatal granulomatous encephalitis. The factors that contribute to Acanthamoeba infections include parasite biology, genetic diversity, environmental spread and host susceptibility, and are highlighted together with potential therapeutic and preventative measures. The use of Acanthamoeba in the study of cellular differentiation mechanisms, motility and phagocytosis, bacterial pathogenesis and evolutionary processes makes it an attractive model organism. There is a significant emphasis on Acanthamoeba as a Trojan horse of other microbes including viral, bacterial, protists and yeast pathogens

Photochemotherapeutic strategies against Acanthamoeba keratitis

Here, we determined the potential of photochemotherapy, namely the application of photodynamic compounds followed by exposure to a suitable source of UV-visible radiation against corneal pathogen, Acanthamoeba. Organometallic macromolecule, tin porphyrin [Sn(IV)porphyrin] was synthesized and purity confirmed using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The Sn(IV)porphyrin was tested against a keratitis isolate of Acanthamoeba castellanii belonging to the T4 genotype using growth and viability assays. The effects of Sn(IV)porphyrin on A. castellanii binding to and cytopathogenicity of human corneal epithelial cells in vitro were tested. The metalloporphyrin showed potent amoebistatic effects. The tin porphyrin inhibited amoebae binding to and cytopathogenicity of corneal epithelial cells. By using derivatives of photodynamic compounds [Sn(IV)porphyrin-antibody conjugates] for selective targeting of the parasite together with appropriate selection of light source will determine the potential of photochemotherapy against Acanthamoeba keratitis

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis caused by Naegleria fowleri: An old enemy presenting new challenges

First discovered in 1899, Naegleria fowleri is a protist pathogen, known to infect the central nervous system and produce primary amoebic meningoencephalitis. The most distressing aspect is that the fatality rate has remained more than 95%, despite our advances in antimicrobial chemotherapy and supportive care. Although rare worldwide, most cases have been reported in the United States, Australia, and Europe (France). A large number of cases in developing countries go unnoticed. In particular, religious, recreational, and cultural practices such as ritual ablution and/or purifications, Ayurveda, and the use of neti pots for nasal irrigation can contribute to this devastating infection. With increasing water scarcity and public reliance on water storage, here we debate the need for increased awareness of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis and the associated risk factors, particularly in developing countries

Strategies to counter transmission of “superbugs” by targeting free-living 3 amoebae

Bacterial infections have remained significant despite our advances in the development of a plethora of disinfectants as well as antimicrobial chemotherapy. This is in part due to our incomplete understanding of the prevalence of bacterial pathogens in the environmental and clinical settings. Several lines of evidence suggest that Acanthamoeba is one of the most ubiquitous/resilient protists that also acts as a host/reservoir for pathogenic microbes. Thus targeting the hardy host, which harbour microbial pathogens, offer a potential avenue to counter infection transmission, particularly hospital/community-acquired infections. This will complement existing approach of applying disinfectants that are targeted against bacterial pathogens 10 directly

Isolation of Acanthamoeba isolates belonging to T2, T3, T4 and T7 genotypes from environmental samples in Ankara, Turkey

Acanthamoeba keratitis is a blinding infection that is becoming increasingly important in human health. Early diagnosis is a prerequisite for successful treatment and requires identification of Acanthamoeba at the genotypic level. The genus Acanthamoeba consists of both pathogenic and non-pathogenic species and has been recently classified into 13 different genotypes, T1-T12 and T14. More importantly, 95% of Acanthamoeba isolates that produce keratitis belong to T4 genotypes. In this study, we attempted to determine whether predominance of T4 isolates in Acanthamoeba keratitis is due to greater virulence or greater prevalence. We isolated 18 Acanthamoeba isolates from environmental samples in Ankara, Turkey and determined their pathogenic potential by means osmotolerance, temperature tolerance and in vitro cytotoxicity assays using corneal epithelial cells. Ribosomal DNA sequencing revealed that 10 isolates belong to T2, 5 belong to T3, 2 belong to T4 and one belongs to T7 genotype. As expected, T3 and T4 isolates exhibited the most pathogenic traits and were osmotolerant, temperature tolerant and exhibited severe corneal epithelial cell cytotoxicity indicating their pathogenic potential. Overall these data indicate that high frequency of T4 isolates in keratitis cases may well be due to their greater virulence. This is the first report presenting environmental distribution of Acanthamoeba in Ankara, Turkey

A novel in vivo model to study bacterial pathogenesis and screen potential therapeutic targets.

As insects rely for their protection against infection on an entirely innate immune system, the use of an insect model is particularly relevant in the study of human newborn Escherichia coli K1 meningitis, the control of which has significant dependency on the innate immune system. Using an in vivo model of neuropathogenic E. coli meningitis, it is shown that immunization with E. coli K-12 can protect locusts against subsequent challenge of invasive E. coli K1. Immunization with other microbes such as Staphylococcus aureus and Acanthamoeba spp. had no effect on K1-induced locust mortality, suggesting immune specificity in invertebrates. The locust immune system was capable of memory and mounting protection against subsequent challenge with invasive K1 for up to 5 days. The usefulness of locusts for the assessment in vivo of potential therapeutic agents was tested. Gentamicin protected locusts against E. coli K1- and S. aureus-mediated death. These finding suggest that the simple locust model described in the present study has the scope in exploring the efficacy of novel drugs (testing large chemical libraries) in microbial diseases, allowing inexpensive, rapid, and even high-throughput experimentation and has no legislative restrictions. Future studies will determine bacterial antigenic determinants and how innate memory functions in locusts. A complete understanding of how locusts\u27 innate immune cells (i.e., haemocytes) respond robustly and specifically against bacterial pathogens will be crucial for the control of neonatal E. coli infection by limiting the ability of the bacteria to overwhelm the host immune system in the early stages of infection

Acanthamoeba and bacteria produce antimicrobials to target their counterpart

Background In the microbial ecosystem, microbes compete for space and nutrients. Consequently, some have developed the ability to kill or inhibit the growth of other competing microbes by producing antimicrobial substances. As the ‘producer’ species are generally immune to these substances, their compounds act on the competing microbial species and give the producer more space and access to nutrients for growth. Many currently used antibiotics were developed by exploiting this potential of certain microbes. Findings Here, the free-living amoeba, Acanthamoeba castellanii, was investigated for its antibacterial activity against representative Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria, while bacterial isolates were tested for their anti-amoebic properties. Conditioned medium from A. castellanii showed remarkable bactericidal properties against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) exhibiting almost 100% kill rate, but had limited effect against Acinetobacter sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis (VRE). Similarly, the conditioned medium of E. coli K1 and Enterobacter sp., exhibited potent anti-Acanthamoebic effects in a concentration-dependent manner. Conditioned media of Acanthamoeba, E. coli K1 and Enterobacter sp. showed no cytotoxicity in vitro when tested against human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Active molecule/s in aforementioned amoebic and two bacterial conditioned media were 5 – 10 kDa, and \u3c5 kDa respectively. Conclusions A. castellanii conditioned medium showed potent bactericidal properties against MRSA. The active molecule(s) are heat- and pronase-resistant, and in the 5 to 10 kDa molecular mass range. Contrary to this, E. coli K1 and Enterobacter sp., conditioned medium showed anti-amoebic effects that are \u3c5 kDa in molecular mass, suggestive of active metabolites

Cellulose degradation: A therapeutic strategy in the improved treatment of Acanthamoeba infections

Acanthamoeba is an opportunistic free-living amoeba that can cause blinding keratitis and fatal brain infection. Early diagnosis, followed by aggressive treatment is a pre-requisite in the successful treatment but even then the prognosis remains poor. A major drawback during the course of treatment is the ability of the amoeba to enclose itself within a shell (a process known as encystment), making it resistant to chemotherapeutic agents. As the cyst wall is partly made of cellulose, thus cellulose degradation offers a potential therapeutic strategy in the effective targeting of trophozoite encased within the cyst walls. Here, we present a comprehensive report on the structure of cellulose and cellulases, as well as known cellulose degradation mechanisms with an eye to target the Acanthamoeba cyst wall. The disruption of the cyst wall will make amoeba (concealed within) susceptible to chemotherapeutic agents, and at the very least inhibition of the excystment process will impede infection recurrence, as we bring these promising drug targets into focus so that they can be explored to their fullest